Social and Economic Goals of Schooling

Social & Economic Goals of Schooling

The social goals of schooling can be thought of as behavior management, or even behavior suppressant in some circumstances, whereby students are taught values through schooling systems to become better citizens. Horace Mann was one of the first pioneers of the idea of social improvement via schooling, with the intention to stop or at least decrease the rate of crime by instilling moral values through a curriculum. The contention that moral values could be taught in a secular institution saw a backlash from religious groups, most notably from the Catholic Church, which set out to create its own school system. Their contention was that the teaching of moral values was not to be endeavored by secular institutions due to the shaping of behavior, which could not be achieved to the appeasement of all religious groups. The contrary, namely the elimination of moral and religious teaching, was deemed unacceptable due to education being viewed as irreligious, leading the Catholic Church to form its own educational institutions.

Still today schooling in American society is viewed as a viable means by which to alter and shape the behavior of its citizens, through what are often suppressant and controlling modalities, especially concerning sex education and sexual behavior. Not only is there an active agenda by government programs to push for programs that alter perceptions of acceptable sexual behavior, behavior involving food consumption has also been endeavored to produce this ideal of what American households ought to be. All three of the mentioned behaviors, crime stoppage, abstinence, and food consumption free from kitchen drudgery, have failed to some extent or another; creating instead a country that imprisons more individuals than any other civilized nation on Earth, a ballooning teen pregnancy rate among poor adolescents and minorities, and the spawning of the fast food industry that heavily contributes to a population 60% or more of which is considered to be obese or overweight. “Mission Accomplished.”

The economic goals of schooling are essentially the objectives set forth by eduwonks and policy makers to ensure the success of the United States in a global economy, one that requires workers who are lifelong learners, adaptive, and conforming to the needs of their respective organization at the time. While this sounds peachy, it does have some issues that need to be addressed, namely the determination of the purpose of schooling and by extension education. Is the purpose to get a paying job? To live a richer and fuller life? Or is the achievement of happiness the ultimate ends? To that I would contend that achievement of happiness is the ultimate goal, but probably could not be achieved without the paying job, which certainly affords a richer and fuller life.

Human Capital

Human capital, in terms of schools, is concerned with value of the students contained therein insomuch that those students can attain and maintain employment upon their graduation from their educational institution, thereby contributing to the economic growth of their community and nation respectively. The Human Capital Model is diamond shaped with investment in schools leading to an educated workforce, which will lead to increased productivity, which in turn will lead to economic growth that will fund more investment in education and ultimately schools again. For this model to work learners need to be adaptive, compliant, obedient, conforming, passive, and unwilling to join labor unions who work to improve worker’s rights. Though the aforementioned are not requisite to America’s ability to compete in a global economy necessarily, or the outcome of a lifelong learner, they are undoubtedly the objectives of many schools and certainly the desired outcome of many organizations. Why else would they find credibility and presence in schools if the end result were not so?

Of note here too, is the theme of societal control, or at least the shaping of behavior by educational institutions for ends not explicitly stated, such as the rituals of conformity demonstrated by the hours of operation, walking in a straight line, a bell which denotes when to begin and end, obedience, the need to be able to follow directions, etc. All of these rituals are preparing Americans to become sorted through the human capital model of progress set forth by the wealthiest and elite, whom control not only most of the wealth among this nation’s citizens, but also control the direction and applicability of educational attainment. The problem is that this issue is an implicit one, with the vast majority of schooling participants not knowing about the agenda set forth for them and the remaining others not caring, as their end-goal is the attainment of employment that affords the American dream.

I would contend that many individuals, those with formal educations at institutions of higher learning and those with high school diplomas and every happenstance in between would agree that the ascertainment of a paying job is a worthy endeavor and that using education as a means to attain it is worthwhile. However, I would also contend that while this end is worthwhile to endeavor, it is not the sole purpose for which an education should be attained, nor is it the sole means by which happiness can be ascertained, though in America it seems that a simple life is one relegated to and for the poor or unworthy. I hope that in my teaching efforts that I can keep this issue in mind, being consciously aware that respect and behavior management or control are not necessarily the same thing, and that the classroom should be one that is conducive to learning, not structured to tailor to the needs of some corporation or organization whose primary concern is a productive, obedient, passive individual who performs a service and nothing more. Rather I would prefer to shape minds that are skeptical and inquisitive, in addition to adaptive and creative lifelong learners, which I do believe to be a valuable asset to both organizations and individuals alike.

References

Spring, J. (2009). American education (14th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Sailing the 7 C's of Motivation

There are many theories comprising the concept of motivation, each providing insight into the begging question that many educators have: “How can I get students to remain interested, take ownership, forgo procrastination, and ultimately become a self-regulated learner?” In this short blog we will briefly examine the concept of motivation and assess how we as educators can foster a climate conducive to motivated learners who actually enjoy classroom instruction, are empowered education recipients, and don’t require nagging to complete assignments.

Motivation can be viewed as an internal state of arousal that drives us to take action, pursue a particular direction, and help keep us engaged in certain activities. It can be the deciding factor in what we learn, the extent to which we learn it, and aid in our continuing to partake in activities that involve previous learning. Generally speaking it can effect:

· Energy and activity level
· Actualization of goals
· Initiation and persistence in certain activities
· Time on task
· Active thinking or cognitive engagement

Facilitating motivation involves a multitude of processes, seven of which will be examined here.

1. Challenge
2. Choice
3. Control
4. Caring
5. Curiosity
6. Competence
7. Connectedness

Challenge: Simply put people enjoy challenge, and indeed need challenge to enter into desirable states of affect, such as Flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). If there is no challenge, students will be bored, like they are when teachers lecture and nothing else. If the perceived challenge outweighs their perceived ability, then students will be anxious. It is the responsibility of educators to find the right balance, and engage students in classroom instruction that gradually builds their efficacy or ability to meet increasingly challenging tasks (Shernoff, Csikszentmihaly, Schneider, 2003).

Choice: Choice is empowering; it provides a sense of ownership. We are more likely to work harder at things we choose to do, which in turn will increase the amount of effort we put into doing it, which increases our persistence, which improves our achievement and ultimately our self-efficacy (the belief we have about our ability in a certain domain). The opposite spiral is also a potential issue, so educators must be cognizant of where students are in actualizing goals.

Control: If we believe we can make improvements and that chance and luck are not the sole contributors to our ability to perform, then we are likely to attribute success to actual causes such as hard work, dedication, etc. If students believe they are in control of their academic success they are indeed likely to see greater academic success and higher grades, put forth more effort, and spend more time on task. Intrinsic motivation increases when students believe they have control, which can be enhanced when teachers offer the ability to make choices, selections, and actions that will produce desired results. Doing so provides a much needed sense of autonomy. (See Weiner’s work on Attribution Theory- 1979; 1985; 1986; 1992 for more).

Caring: If you don’t care, then chances are your students won’t either. Additionally, ask yourself, “Does this material provide relevance?” “Is the information I’m providing interesting?” “Have I provided opportunities for recognition?” If you have and you do, student motivation is likely to be high. If not, then you need to put more thoughtful effort into your planning and presentation of information.

Curiosity: Humans are a naturally curious bunch, and so are drawn to phenomena that happen to pique their curiosity. By presenting information in a manner that bolsters curiosity, perhaps through deliberate and thoughtful questioning, educators can foster and develop a sense of inquisitive curiosity in their students.

Competence: Success at challenging tasks provides a sense of competence, which builds self-confidence. See above information on self-efficacy and the upward cycle under Choice.

Connectedness: When are you more engaged, when listening to a lecture or solving problems with peers? Chances are you are more enthralled when working with colleagues or peers, and so it goes with students. We need to feel connected to not only others around us, but to the information being presented as well, which can be accomplished as easily as facilitating meet and greets in the early sessions, 3 minute standing conversations, or group projects and discussion. As an educator find a way to let your students interact with one another, the results may surprise you.

Teachers can foster motivation in a variety ways that are not examined above, including the issuance of contracts, incentives, recognition, social support, feedback that is specific and immediate, and importantly instruction in proper goal setting. In the end, educators must determine if the material they present, the activities they provide, and the climate they set in their classrooms and lecture halls is of the nature that addresses the 7 C’s of motivation. If not, chances are that absenteeism will be high, concentration and learning diminished, and Outstanding Teacher Awards will remain chronically elusive.

I would especially like to thank Dr. Peter Doolittle, Associate Professor at Virginia Tech and Director of the Center for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching, for providing discourse and resources on the topic of motivation, and particularly the notion of the 7 C’s.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper
and Row.

McKenzie, J.F., Neiger, B.L., Thackery, R. (2009). Planning, implementing, and evaluating
health promotion programs: A primer (5th ed). San Francisco: Pearson Education Inc.

Ormrod, J. E. (2008). Human learning (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Inc.

Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihaly, M., Schneider, B. (2003). Student engagement in high
school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. School Psychology Quarterly, 18(2), 158-176.

A Quick Introduction To The Concept of Flow

Csikszentmihalyi (1990) suggests that modifying our experience of external conditions to better accommodate our goals is better suited than trying to modify external conditions to match our goals. By doing so, we allow for a greater freedom of improvisation within our environment and the challenges that we may face. This is the case, not only during optimal experience, but in everyday life. Our expectations would no longer be bounded by the external or internal environment by doing so. This attitudinal operative is necessary for engagements leading to the experience of flow. Once this attitude has been wrought by our individual psychologies, then the experience of true enjoyment can be achieved. Not enjoyment in the mundane sense, like pleasure, but rather that which entails a person going beyond what he or she has been rigidly programmed to do, and achieve what is beyond expectation or imagination. This requires a great deal of attention from the individual and absorption into the task at hand.

Csikszentmihalyi has broken this experience into eight major components, of which at least one or usually all are experienced by individuals engaged in it. First, the task has to be accomplishable. Second, third, and fourth, require the individual to give attention to the task at hand and concentrate. This concentration is made possible because of clear goals and immediate feedback. The fifth maintains that the individual is so completely absorbed to the point of having no worries or fears that the outside world becomes irrelevant. The sixth component involves a sense of control or preparedness that allows for interaction, and moving from knowing into unknowing. The seventh has the individual at a loss of self or ego, not to the point of loss of necessary skills, but more so a loss of consciousness of the self. Lastly, there is an alteration in the sense of time for those in the experience.

The activity can have several dimensions, with or without physical skill, just so long as skills are utilized in the actualization of the goal. In the use of skills it is necessary they be engaged in a manner befitting a challenge, and one that is just the right amount for individual capabilities. Even the mundane can provide optimal experience, just so long as there is enough challenge put forth by the individual with the stipulation of goals, rules, and attention. However, when in search of the true positive qualities of experience, one must incorporate more demanding challenges that require higher level skills.

“When all a person’s relevant skills are needed to cope with the challenges of a situation, that person’s attention is completely absorbed by the activity” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). It is here that the optimal experience can take place, when the individual becomes so absorbed they no longer separate themselves from their actions; indeed the actions take on automaticity and spontaneity. The activity becomes its own reason for achieving, and extrinsic motivations become diminished, leaving only the individual and the task at hand to surge back and forth together in a tidal dance of exchange.

Csikszentmihalyi further emphasizes what May and Maslow proclaim regarding the necessity of hard work, physical exertion, or highly disciplined mental activity that is required to achieve the sensation of flow. Complete concentration is necessary to maintain it, and that concentration is given its potency through our efficacies. When “in the moment,” brought forth by our efficacies and absorption, the goals set are clear and feedback immediate. Working toward the goal necessitates improvisation, and it’s here that situational or external factors provide circumstances that allow for re-direction, all the while maintaining the goal.

Improve Student Learning and Behavior with Recess

Ever get punished in school and have to forgo recess? Ever been in the position to discipline a student and chose to limit or prohibit their recess? A new study recently published in the journal Pediatrics shows that allowing for recess may actually improve behavioral issues in the classroom। Research up until this point has been inconclusive, with a more prominent study conducted by Basile and colleagues in 1995 demonstrating antecedent exercise to essentially only reduce “fidgety” behaviors in children with diagnosed behavioral disorders. Other research, albeit structurally flawed, has essentially concluded that antecedent exercise may not even be a viable behavior management strategy (Faulkner, 2006; Walters & Martin, 2000; Endresen & Olweus, 2005).

This new research, however points to the intuitive notion that taking a break is almost essential for sustained cognitive functioning (Ormrod, 2008). After 45-60 minutes the brain needs a break, something new and fresh to captivate the senses and lighten the cognitive load. Children will be more attentive after a short recess than before, even if that recess involves playing quietly in the classroom rather than running around in the gym or outdoors (Pellegrini & Bjorklund, 1997; Pelligrini, Huberty, & Jones, 1995). Essentially, we learn more when there is less, something teachers need to take into consideration when planning their lessons and activities.